Networking and the Internet, from First Principles

Modern internet communication relies on a decentralized system where data is converted into radio waves, electrical pulses, and light that travels through equipment owned by dozens of independent companies across continents, yet operates with remarkable reliability without any central control or coordination. The internet's various protocols—including packet switching, TCP, DNS, and TLS—were not part of an original grand design but rather evolved as practical solutions to specific problems over decades, with new challenges continuously emerging from technological advancement.